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Fire Service Features in Sprinklered Buildings
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This manual provides a general overview of a particular topic related to OSHA standards concerning fire and emergency protection. The manual is advisory in nature and informational in content. It is not a standard or a regulation, and it neither creates new legal obligations nor alters existing obligations created by OSHA standards or the Occupational Safety and Health Act.
Employers are required to comply with hazard-specific safety and health standards as issued and enforced either by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) or by an OSHA-approved State Plan. In addition, Section 5(a)(1) of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, the General Duty Clause, requires employers to provide their employees with a workplace free from recognized hazards likely to cause death or serious physical harm. Employers can be cited for violating the General Duty Clause if there is such a recognized hazard, and they do not take reasonable steps to prevent or abate the hazard. However, the failure to implement any of the recommendations in this manual is not, in itself, a violation of the General Duty Clause. Citations can only be based on standards, regulations, and the General Duty Clause.
This manual does not supersede or substitute for any local or state laws, codes, ordinances, regulations, or amendments thereto. This manual shall only be used as a nonbinding supplement to a jurisdiction's requirements.
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Chapter 1
Introduction
PURPOSE
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The purpose of this manual is to increase the safety of building occupants and emergency responders by streamlining fire service interaction with building features and fire protection systems. The information in this manual will assist designers of buildings and fire protection systems to better understand the needs of the fire service when they are called upon to operate in or near the built environment (figure 1.1). To put this another way, architects and engineers create workplaces for firefighters. Designs can be tailored to better meet operational needs, thereby reducing the time it takes to mitigate an incident.
The guidance in this manual is expected to decrease the injuries to responding and operating fire service personnel. When an incident can be mitigated faster, there is less time for the hazardous situation to grow in proportion. With less potential exposure, employees occupying buildings will be afforded greater protection from fire incidents. Employee occupants as well as fire service employees will realize the benefits of this manual in terms of safe working conditions as intended by the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.
The codes and standards governing buildings and fire protection systems are well understood by designers. However, many portions of these codes and standards allow design variations or contain only general performance language. The resulting flexibility permits the selection of different design options. Some of these options may facilitate fire service operations better than others.
The particular needs and requirements of the fire service are typically not known thoroughly by persons not associated with these operations. This manual discusses how the fire service interacts with different building features and it suggests methods for streamlining such interaction. To provide the most effective protection, fire service personnel should be considered as users of building features and fire protection systems. While far less frequent than mechanical events or other failures, fire can cause greater destruction in terms of property loss, disruption of operations, injury, and death.
Designers routinely consider the needs and comfort of building occupants when arranging a building's layout and systems. Within the framework of codes and standards, design options may be exercised to benefit a particular owner, tenant, or user. For example, a building code would typically dictate the minimum number of lavatories and water fountains. However, the location, distribution, and types of such facilities are left to the designer in consultation with the client.
(Fig. 1.1) Commercial building fire at night with multiple exposures.
The application of fire protection features in buildings is similar. For instance, a fire code may require the installation of a fire department connection for a sprinkler system or an annunciator for a fire alarm system. However, there may be little or no guidance as to the location, position, features, or marking of such devices. This manual provides this type of guidance to designers. However, specific local requirements or preferences may differ. Input should always be obtained from local code officials and the fire service organization, the “client” in this case.
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SCOPE
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This manual is to be used voluntarily, as a companion to mandatory and advisory provisions in building codes, life safety codes, fire codes, safety regulations, and installation standards for fire protection systems. The material contained in this document focuses on ways that building and fire protection system designers can contribute to the efficiency of fire suppression operations.
This material is applicable to all fire service organizations, including fire brigades and fire departments. Many of the considerations in the following chapters will also help during responses for other emergencies, such as hazardous materials releases, emergency medical care, non-fire rescues, and terrorist events.
Users of this manual must understand its limitations. It is directed to designers of buildings and fire protection systems to help them build on existing codes and standards to assist the fire service. For example, the topic of emergency radio communications can be extensive; however, its treatment here is limited to the equipment in buildings that can support radio communications. Likewise, there are entire standards and books written about sprinkler, standpipe, and fire alarm design. However, this manual covers only portions of those systems with which the fire service interacts and suggests design details that will help streamline or support fire service operations.
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A FIRE SERVICE PRIMER
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This section will give those outside the fire service a basic understanding of how the fire service operates during an emergency. It will also familiarize them with the varying capabilities and organizations involved in fire fighting.
Fire service organizations can be classified as career, volunteer, or a combination of both. Career staff members are paid for their work, while volunteer members are unpaid. Combination organizations have both career and volunteer staff. Career organizations typically serve the larger, more urban or industrial settings, although many smaller cities or towns will have a full or partial career staff. Volunteer organizations are usually found in more suburban or rural settings, although some serve densely populated areas and have very high emergency response rates.
Another way to categorize fire departments is by whether fire stations are staffed with personnel ready to respond. Most career organizations have personnel who remain in the station while on duty. However, "call firefighters" are paid on a per-response or hourly basis and do not remain in their station awaiting emergency calls. Most volunteers respond from home or work when they are alerted to an emergency. On the other hand, there are organizations that have volunteer personnel staffing their stations on shifts or even living in the stations.
Another fire service organization is the industrial fire brigade. This is an organized group of employees specifically trained to provide fire suppression, and perhaps related emergency activities, for a specific employer. Members may be dedicated full time to emergency operations, or emergency response may be a part-time, collateral duty.
(Fig. 1.2) A view from above of both a pumper (top) and an aeriol apparatus (bottom) in this case a platform type of aerial.
A typical emergency begins with the discovery and reporting of an incident. The time span of this phase can vary greatly, and the fire service has no control over this. After the report is received, the information is processed and the appropriate units are alerted. Those firefighters not staffing the station (whether volunteer, paid on-call, or collateral duty fire brigade members) must travel to the station. Firefighters then don their protective equipment, board the vehicles, and the response phase begins. In some organizations or scenarios, members not staffing the station may go directly to the incident scene.
(Fig. 1.3) During initial operation at this structure, the first arriving engine crew is already using a fire lane, a fire hydrant, the fire department connection, and the key box. Interior operation will soon involve the alarm system, stairways, standpipe system, and other building features.
The fire service response to a structure fire would normally involve a number of different units. Fire department vehicles are called apparatus; one is sometimes referred to as a “piece” of apparatus. They come in a wide variety of forms for specialized uses; however, the basic types are pumper and aerial apparatus (Figure 1.2).
A pumper apparatus normally carries hose, a pump, and a small water tank. Together with its personnel, this is called an engine company. Their main responsibility is to deliver water to the fire. Initially, the engine company may operate using the water available in their tank; however, any incidents other than small exterior fires will typically require that a continuous water supply be established. This is done via hose lines carrying water from a source of supply (fire hydrant, lake, pond, temporary basin) to the on-board pump, which then boosts the pressure to hose lines or other devices attacking the fire.
An aerial apparatus is typically equipped with a long aerial ladder or elevating platform on top, an assortment of ground ladders, and many power and hand tools. Together with its personnel, this is often called a truck (or ladder) company. They are responsible for all support functions, including forcible entry, search, rescue, laddering, and ventilation. If aerial apparatus is not available, these truck company functions must be performed by another unit.
There is also an apparatus called a “quint.” Each of these vehicles is equipped as both a pumper and an aerial apparatus to perform either function. If provided with adequate staffing, and positioned properly at an incident, quints can perform both functions.
Upon arrival at an incident, firefighters must handle many tasks. Standard operating procedures should enable firefighters to quickly assess the situation, and initially arriving units to go into operation (Figure 1.3). Rescuing of occupants is the first priority, followed by confining and extinguishing the fire. In some cases, firefighters must stop the fire before proceeding with rescues.
Incident command begins with the rapid gathering of information by the first arriving officer. This is called “size-up.” Incident command expands as additional units and chief officers arrive. Commanders must base strategies on the limited information available at any given time regarding the fire, the building, and the occupants. As they receive additional information, commanders should revise their strategies. As needed, they can call for additional resources. Units from another jurisdiction or district that respond are referred to as “mutual aid” units.
As the fire incident is brought under control, salvage, overhaul, and investigation activities take place. These activities, although dangerous and important, are less time-sensitive. As a result, they are less of a consideration for building and fire protection system designers.
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FIRE SERVICE CHALLENGES
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Fire service operations take place in stressful, time-sensitive environments (Figure 1.4). Delaying operations, even slightly, especially during the critical initial phase when the first arriving resources are committed, can adversely affect subsequent operations and the outcome. Delays caused by poorly located fire hydrants, confusing alarm information, ineffective communication systems, or inaccessible valves will have a ripple effect on the other portions of the operation. During these delays, the fire will be growing exponentially.
Members of the fire service perform their functions during all times of the day or night, in any weather conditions, and frequently in unfamiliar environments. Their work environment is dangerous, mentally stressful, and physically exhausting. Decisions must often be made without an ideal amount of information, due to the many unknowns on the fireground (such as what is on fire, how much is burning, where the fire is spreading, and where the occupants are located).
These factors stack the deck against the safety of firefighters. Even simplifying the firefighters' job in small ways will increase the level of safety for them, and thereby for building occupants. Design features that save time or personnel can make a great difference. Any feature that provides additional information regarding the fire, the building, or the occupants, as well as any method to speed the delivery of this information also helps.
Pre-incident plans (often called “preplans”) are documents prepared by fire departments to assist in emergency operations in specific facilities. They should contain the location of, and information about, the fire protection features discussed in this manual. Preplans are usually prepared and maintained by the unit that normally responds first, or is "first due," to a particular facility. One could argue that some of the considerations in this manual are not necessary if the fire department prepares thorough preplans. However, the best pre-incident planning cannot overcome situations where the first due unit is committed on another response, out of position, or out of service. Nor can it foresee changes in personnel. It is simply unrealistic to count on all responding personnel to be aware of the pre-incident plan.
Pre-incident planning makes sense but it will always have limitations. Fire departments and firefighters that are more familiar with features of buildings in their response area are better prepared to deal with fires and other emergencies. Designers can assist in pre-incident planning by providing copies of building and system plans (paper or electronic) to the fire service after first seeking permission from the building owner.
(Fig. 1.4) Firefighters arriving at a high-rise fire. During this operation, firefighters will interact with most of the features discussed in this manual. To successfully mitigate an incident of this nature, firefighters must make many decisions rapidly, and carry out various operations simultaneously. Time saved due to design with the fire service in mind will translate into increased firefighter and occupant safety.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) statistics show a steady decline of fire-related deaths in the U.S. during the 1990s. During that same decade, however, the number of firefighter fatalities has remained relatively steady. The National Fallen Firefighters Foundation has developed a list of safety initiatives to reduce firefighter line-of-duty deaths and is playing a lead role in their implementation.
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MANUAL ORGANIZATION AND USE
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Each chapter of this manual includes a narrative describing the specific building feature and how the fire department interacts with it. Boxes, entitled “Considerations,” highlight specific items that a designer should consider for each topic. Photos and diagrams illustrate both good and bad examples of concepts and recommendations.
Although this manual contains generic considerations, designers should seek and follow the advice of the fire service organization serving each project they work on. In some cases, the fire department will have statutory authority to take part in the plan review, permit process, and inspections of these facilities or to approve some features of the building or site. In any case, it is wise to also include the fire service at an early stage in the design process, when changes are easier and less costly.
There are many ways for the fire protection community to disseminate or incorporate the information in this manual. Simply handing it out to designers is a great start. Developing a handout based on this document that is specific to a particular jurisdiction is another good strategy. The recommendations can also serve as a basis for local code amendments which carry the force of law.
Many of the recommendations in this manual cost nothing to implement. They simply provide direction in cases where the model codes or consensus standards allow options. Designers can implement these recommendations directly, in consultation with the fire department. Other recommendations in this manual may carry costs, depending on the particular codes adopted in a given jurisdiction. In such cases, those who would be affected by these costs should be consulted.
Codes and standards typically include a clause that permits the code official to allow alternatives to strict compliance, as long as the prescribed level of safety is not diminished. In some cases, a higher level of safety for firefighters can be achieved through this process. For example, a voluntary radio repeater system may provide more protection (and may also be less costly to install) than a code-required firefighter communication system. Equivalent alternatives should be documented along with justification.
This manual may also serve as a resource for those interested in improving codes and standards for building or fire protection system design. While current codes in the U.S. provide for firefighter safety, much more remains to be accomplished. For instance, building codes in the U.K. have specific fire service provisions, such as dedicated, protected fire stairs and elevators. Streamlining and simplifying fire service operations should be considered an integral part of the overall fire safety framework for the built environment.
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TERMINOLOGY
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The terminology used in this manual is as generic as possible, just as it is in the standards of the National Fire Protection Association and the International Code Council. Many variations in terms will be encountered in different areas of the U.S. or in other countries. For example, this manual uses the term “aerial apparatus” to describe a fire service vehicle with a long, aerial ladder. Yet, in this country alone, other terms used to describe the same vehicle include: “truck,” “ladder,” “aerial,” “ladder truck,” “tower,” or “tower ladder.” Or, in some cases, the same terms could be used to describe a particular aerial fire apparatus. Similarly, in some areas the term “truck” refers only to aerial apparatus, while in other areas this term could also include pumper apparatus.
In another example of potentially confusing terminology, fire apparatus drivers in some areas of the country are referred to as “engineers.” Consider the situation of an architect speaking to a fire officer in an area where this terminology is used. You can easily see how the fire officer could use the term “engineer” to mean a driver, while the architect interprets the term as a building design engineer.
The editions of the codes and standards referenced in this manual are not included. The information and requirements referenced in this manual are from the latest editions available during the manual's development in 2004. Subsequent revisions to these codes and standards may change the sections or the requirements referenced. The editions adopted by local or state laws in a given jurisdiction may vary.
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GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS AND TERMS
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GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS AND TERMS
AHJ (Authority Having Jurisdiction): the entity legally designated to enforce a code or standard.
Apparatus: fire service vehicle.
Apparatus, aerial: apparatus that carries ladders and tools.
Apparatus, pumper: apparatus that carries hose, a pump, and a water tank.
Apparatus, quint: apparatus that contains aerial and pumper equipment.
Code Official: a fire code official, building code official, or authority having jurisdiction.
Code Official, Building: person legally designated to enforce a building code.
Code Official, Fire: person legally designated to enforce a fire code.
Engine company: pumper apparatus and personnel.
First due unit: engine company or truck company designated to respond first to an incident at a given location.
Hose lay, straight (or forward): an engine company evolution (task) to lay hose from a water source to an incident scene or another unit.
Hose lay, reverse: an engine company evolution (task) to lay hose from an incident scene or another unit to a water source.
Hose line, preconnected: a hose of fixed length with a nozzle attached and connected to a discharge outlet on a pumper.
IBC: International Building Code.
IFC: International Fire Code.
Ladder company: aerial apparatus and personnel.
NFPA: National Fire Protection Association.
NFPA 1: Uniform Fire Code.
NFPA 101: Life Safety Code.
NFPA 241: Standard for Safeguarding Construction, Alteration, and Demolition Operations.
NFPA 1141: Standard for Fire Protection in Planned Building Groups.
NFPA 5000: Building Construction and Safety Code.
Pre-incident plan: document containing information on a specific facility to facilitate emergency operations.
Truck company: aerial apparatus and personnel.
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Chapter 2
Building and Site Design
GENERAL
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The faster the fire service can respond, enter, locate the incident, and safely operate in a building, the sooner they can mitigate an incident in a safe manner for themselves as well as occupants. This chapter contains guidance on this topic for both building site layout and interior design features. Those preparing design documents such as site plans, civil plans, foundation plans, and architectural layouts would typically use this information. Building designers desiring to locate fire protection systems features should consult the appropriate chapters of this manual for further guidance.
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FIRE APPARATUS ACCESS
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Properly positioning fire apparatus can be critical at a fire scene. In particular, placing aerial apparatus is critical for positioning of the aerial ladder or elevating platform, which is mounted on top of these vehicles (Figure 2.1). Pumper apparatus also need to get close enough to the building to facilitate hose line use. The location of other specialized apparatus, or small vehicles, such as chief's cars or ambulances, should only be of particular concern to the designer of unusual facilities. For instance, a sports arena may need to be designed for entry of ambulances but not fire apparatus.
Many structures are situated on public streets that provide fire fighting access. Others, which are set back from public streets, have private fire apparatus access lanes or “fire lanes,” for short. These enable fire apparatus to approach the building and operate effectively (Figure 2.2). Fire lanes can be dedicated to fire service use, or can serve ordinary vehicular traffic as well.
There are many considerations for both public roads and fire lanes: clear width, clear height, length, turn radius, arrangement, distance from the building, and paving materials. In all cases, the most stringent practicable dimensions should be considered for design, since future apparatus purchases or mutual aid apparatus from other jurisdictions may exceed the specifications required in a given jurisdiction at any given time.
(Fig. 2.1) Good aerial apparatus access at an apartment fire. This fire lane is wide enough to allow passing even when aerial outriggers are extended, and it is located a proper distance from the building to facilitate aerial operations.
(Fig. 2.2) Fire lane dimensions, reprinted with permission from the NFPA 2003 Uniform Fire Code Handbook, © 2003, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA.
Extent of Access
Minimum building access for fire apparatus is a function of the access road reaching to within a certain distance of all portions of the building's first floor exterior walls. This limit in NFPA 1 and the IFC is 150 feet for buildings without a complete sprinkler system. For fully sprinklered buildings, NFPA 1 permits this distance to be increased to 450 feet; the IFC leaves this decision up to the discretion of the code official. Further, NFPA 1 requires that the road extend to within 50 feet of an exterior door providing interior access.
The distance from the building to a road or fire lane is sometimes referred to as “setback distance.” NFPA 1141 has additional guidelines for access locations versus building location, with variations depending upon building size, height, sprinkler protection, and separation from other buildings.
Perimeter Access
The options available for attacking a fire increase as more of a building's perimeter becomes accessible to fire apparatus (Figure 2.3). A concept, known as “frontage increase,” appears in the IBC and NFPA 5000. If a structure has more than a certain percentage of its perimeter accessible to fire apparatus, these codes allow the maximum size of the building to be increased. Ideally, the full perimeter would be accessible.
During renovations, designers should use particular caution to ensure that the perimeter access continues to meet the NFPA requirements of fire and building codes. The original building site may have been based on a frontage increase. Changing the amount of perimeter access can result in noncompliant building size.
(Fig. 2.3) A combination of two public roads and two private fire lanes provides full perimeter access to this building.
Number of Fire Lanes
A single access route is a basic requirement in both NFPA 1 and the IFC. However, both codes allow the code official or AHJ to require additional access routes due to various factors that could inhibit access (such as terrain, climate, or vehicle congestion). NFPA 1141 requires two access routes for buildings over two stories or 30 feet in height. Multiple fire lanes should be as far removed from one another as practicable.
Turnarounds
Long, dead-end fire lanes or roads should provide a means for fire apparatus to turn around. Both NFPA 1 and the IFC require turnaround space for dead-ends that are more than 150 feet long. There are a number of configurations that facilitate turning maneuvers. These include, "T-turn," "Y-turn, " and round cul-de-sac style arrangements (Figures 2.4 and 2.5 for NFPA diagrams). NFPA 1141 requires a 120-foot turnaround at the end of dead-ends more than 300 feet long. Turnaround diagrams also can be found in Appendix D of the IFC.
(Fig. 2.4) Fire apparatus “Y-” and “T-turnarounds.” Reprinted with permission from NFPA 2003 Uniform Fire Reprinted with permission from NFPA 2003 Uniform Fire Code Handbook, © 2003, National Fire Protection Code Handbook, © 2003, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. Association, Quincy, MA.
(Fig. 2.5) Fire apparatus cul-de-sac turnaround. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 2003 Uniform Fire Reprinted with permission from NFPA 2003 Uniform Fire Code Handbook, © 2003, National Fire Protection Code Handbook, © 2003, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. Association, Quincy, MA.
Clear Width
The basic clear width requirement for apparatus access in the IFC and NFPA 1 is 20 feet. NFPA 1141 calls for one-way fire lanes that are 16 feet wide; however, this applies to roads that do not abut buildings. A clear width of 20 feet will allow most aerial apparatus to extend the outriggers necessary to support the aerial ladder or elevating platform while in operation (Figures 1.2 and 2.1). However, some recently manufactured aerial apparatus require 24 feet of clear width for outrigger extension.
Lanes wide enough for apparatus to pass one another will facilitate developing and expanding operations. NFPA 1141 contains a 24-foot clear width requirement for two-way fire lanes. Appendix D of the IBC calls for a 26-foot clear width at fire hydrant locations, extending for a distance of 20 feet in both directions, as well as a 26-foot width in the vicinity of buildings that are 30 feet or more in height (for aerial operations). NFPA 1141 also contains guidance on access in parking lots.
Rolled or rounded curbs adjacent to properly designed sidewalks can effectively increase access width. These allow apparatus to easily negotiate curbs.
Height
The basic requirement for clear height of fire lanes in the IFC, NFPA 1 and NFPA 1141 is 13 feet 6 inches. Some modern aerial apparatus may require 14 feet of clearance. Potential for accumulation of snow and ice should be factored into height requirements. The NFPA 1 handbook recommends at least 14 feet in colder climates. Newer aerial apparatus may also require additional height. Finally, avoid overhead wires or other obstructions when determining fire lane locations.
Building Proximity
In areas with aerial apparatus that may respond to an emergency, the road or fire lane should be positioned at a distance from the building that will accommodate aerial ladder operation. Access too close or too far from the building will limit aerial ladder use. Where a fire lane is parallel to a building that is more than 30 feet high, Appendix D of the IFC calls for the near edge of the lane to be between 15 and 30 feet away from the building.
Turn Radius
The IFC and NFPA 1 leave turn radius requirements to the code official and AHJ. However, NFPA 1141 requires a minimum inside turn radius of 25 feet and a minimum outside radius for turns of 50 feet. The cul-de-sac depicted in Figure 2.5 shows an effective inside turn radius of 40 feet. Further, NFPA 1141 requires 2-foot curb cuts on either side of a fire lane where it connects to a road.
Grade
NFPA 1 sets a maximum grade (slope) of 5 percent for fire lanes. NFPA 1141 specifies a 10 percent maximum, as well as a 0.5 percent minimum to prevent pooling of water. However, some manufacturers have lower limits for specific apparatus. When aerial apparatus is set up for operation, the vehicle body must be leveled with the outriggers. The least grade possible would allow for the most rapid setup.
Loads
All access roads or lanes should be built to withstand the loads presented by modern, heavy fire apparatus as well as potential weather conditions. Paved surfaces, bridges, and other elevated surfaces (such as piers or boardwalks) should be designed to handle the weight of all apparatus that may use them. The IFC Appendix D has a load design requirement of 75,000 pounds. U.S. Department of Transportation standards dictate requirements for both load and frequency. The IFC references the Standard Specification for Highway Bridges from the American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
Materials
All-weather paved access is the best surface. Some jurisdictions permit the use of paver blocks or subsurface construction for fire lanes (Figure 2.6). These permit an area to be partially or fully landscaped, while being strong enough to allow fire apparatus to negotiate the area. However, these materials do have inherent limitations. Unless their perimeter is clearly marked, it is easy to drive off the edge. Also, in regions subject to snow accumulation, areas with paver blocks and subsurface construction cannot be plowed effectively (Figure 2.7).
(Fig. 2.6) Paver blocks were chosen instead of paving for this access road. The aesthetic benefits are minimal, and the road cannot be plowed effectively.
(Fig. 2.7) The same paver block access lane as shown in figure 2.6, but covered with snow. Access is blocked by a mound of snow plowed from the adjacent parking lot.
Gates, Barricades and Security Measures
Security concerns may impact fire service access. Gates (manual, electric, or radio controlled), bollards, pop-up barricades, and other perimeter controls can delay fire service operations. On the other hand, these access control measures can assist in keeping vehicular traffic away from fire lanes (Figures 2.8 through 2.10). During the design phase of a project, careful coordination between those responsible for security and fire protection can help resolve both concerns. In addition, proper gate size, location, and swing can facilitate fire service access. Wooden bollards are designed with cuts near their bases to allow access when apparatus bump them and break them. However, this results in delays while they are broken and cleared from the path of the apparatus, and may also cause damage.
(Fig. 2.8) Manual gates cause inherent delays because personnel must dismount to unlock them or cut through chains. However, they can also help keep the fire access lane clear by preventing vehicle parking.
(Fig. 2.9) The delays caused by electronic gates can be minimized by providing the fire department with access cards or remove access controls.
(Fig. 2.10) Pop-up barricades such as these are appearing more frequently due to security concerns. Unless security forces are constantly present to operate them, however, the fire department should be provided with a means to do so.
Speed Control Measures
Speed bumps or humps can impact fire apparatus access. Due to their suspension, these vehicles must come to a nearly complete stop to pass over these bumps, delaying arrival to a fire scene. Some special speed bump designs allow for fire apparatus to straddle bumps, while passenger vehicles cannot do so. Dips should also be avoided so that long wheel-base vehicles do not hit bottom and damage undercarriage components and overhanging equipment.
Marking
Fire lane signage is important, both for the public and enforcement officials (Figure 2.8). Examples include signs, curb painting, or curb stenciling. A jurisdiction's requirements must be followed exactly to ensure that no-parking provisions are legally enforceable. Speed bumps should be conspicuously painted, and signs indicating their location should be posted in climates subject to accumulation of snow and ice. Load limits should be posted conspicuously on both ends of bridges or elevated surfaces.
Considerations - Fire Apparatus Access
Extent of Access: Within 150 feet of the farthest exterior point; can be farther in sprinklered buildings.
Perimeter Access: As many sides of the building and as much of the perimeter as possible; take advantage of frontage increases.
Number of Fire Lanes: More than one when dictated by code official or AHJ.
Turnarounds: Provided for on all dead-ends more than 150 feet long.
Clear Width (excluding parking): Minimum 20 feet; preferably, 24 feet to allow passing and 26 feet in the vicinity of fire hydrants or points of aerial access.
Clear Height: Minimum 13 feet 6 inches; higher where subject to accumulations of snow and ice.
Obstructions: Avoid overhead wires and other obstructions.
Proximity to Buildings for Aerial Operations: If parallel to buildings more than 30 feet high, locate near edge 15-30 feet away.
Turn Radius: Minimum 25 feet inside and 50 feet outside.
Curb Cut: If provided, extend 2 feet beyond on each side of intersecting fire lane.
Grade (slope): Maximum 5 percent; least grade possible for aerial operation areas.
Load: Access routes, both on grade and elevated, designed for the largest possible apparatus load.
Materials: Design access routes for all-weather use.
Security Measures: To minimize delays, specify that keys, electronic access cards, or remote access controls are provided to the fire department.
Barricades: Use non-destructive gates or posts rather than breakaway bollards.
Gate Size: At least 2 feet wider than fire lanes.
Gate Location: At least 30 feet from public right-of-way.
Gate Swing: Away from direction of fire apparatus travel.
Speed Bumps: Avoid them, or design them for fire apparatus.
Signage: Provide for no-parking areas, and for load limits.
Special Apparatus: May require more stringent criteria than above.
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PREMISES IDENTIFICATION
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The fire service must be able to rapidly identify and locate a specific building. Address numbers should be placed on the building facing the street or road on which the building is addressed. If the building entry faces a different street, both the street name and the number should be on the address sign.
Numbers should be large enough to read from the street or road. If this is not possible due to the location of the building or due to obstructions, additional signs should be provided (Figure 2.11). The IFC specifies that address numbers be a minimum of 4 inches high. Some jurisdictions have a higher minimum height requirement, especially for commercial properties. The number should be in Arabic numerals rather than spelled out (for example, "120" instead of "One Hundred Twenty").
Buildings set back in groups that share common entrances can make quickly locating a specific building and the shortest route to it difficult. On such sites, additional signs with directional arrows and/or diagrams of the buildings and access layout should be posted (Figures 2.12 and 2.13).
Whenever possible, signs should be illuminated. In areas subject to snow accumulation, signs should be positioned above anticipated accumulations. See the section Firefighter Access on page 21 for signage to assist the fire service in identifying portions of a building, or interior layouts.
(Fig. 2.11) Supplemental address sign at the entrance serving this building set far back from the road.
(Fig. 2.12) Directional address sign at the entrance of a property.
(Fig. 2.13) Diagrammatic sign showing an entire complex of buildings and their address(es). The addition of fire hydrant locations (and any other fire protection features) would assist responding firefighters.
Considerations - Premises Identification
Location: Addresses should be on each building.
Numeral size: At least 4 inches high for single family homes, and preferably 6 inches high for all other properties; larger if necessary to be visible from the street.
Numerals: Addresses (numbers) should be in Arabic numerals.
Color: Addresses should be in a color that contrasts with the background.
Provide street name with the address number for entrances facing other streets.
Provide additional address signs at entrances to the property when the building address is not legible from the public street.
Common entrances: Provide directional or diagrammatic signs for groups of buildings sharing common entrances; include locations of fire hydrants, fire department connections, and fire alarm annunciator panels.
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FIRE HYDRANTS
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Optimal positioning, spacing, location, and marking of fire hydrants can aid the fire service during emergency operations. Public fire hydrants are often under the purview of a local water authority, many of whom use American Water Works Association (AWWA) standards for fire flow and other criteria. The building design team is often responsible for hydrants and water supply systems on privately owned property sites. Both the IFC and NFPA 1 include appendices that give criteria for fire flow, and fire hydrant location and distribution. Other criteria can be found in NFPA 24, Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and their Appurtenances.
Features
Typically, hydrants have a large suction hose connection (41/2 inches is a common size) called a “pumper outlet” or a “steamer” connection. Plus, they normally have two, 21/2 inch hose connections. Both wet-barrel type hydrants and the dry-barrel types used in areas subject to freezing have these features. Dry hydrants (those connected to a static source such as a tank, well, or pond) often have only a large connection or pumper outlet. Criteria for dry hydrants can be found in NFPA 1142, Standard for Water Supplies for Suburban and Rural Firefighting.
Hose can be connected directly to a fire hydrant only if the connections match those needed by the area fire service. This includes type (threaded or quick-connect), thread style and size of connection. If the connections do not match, adapters (if available) will slow response.
Position
Optimal location and positioning of hydrants facilitates rapid connection of hose lines and devices. Considerations for designers include height, orientation, distance from the curb, and distance from surrounding obstructions (Figure 2.14). A clear distance is essential around the hydrant to enable a hydrant wrench to be swung 360 degrees (see Figure 2.16b) on any operating nut or cap nut. If the nearby obstruction is a plant or bush, consider its potential growth when planning for hydrant placement.
(Fig. 2.14) This hydrant should not have been located where it is likely to be blocked. Loading docks, by nature, will likely have vehicles parked. This is an example of building a potential deficiency into a facility. The truck could prevent use of the large pumper connection or cause the base to be kinked when used. Note the yellow bollards which protect the hydrant from vehicle collision.
(Fig. 2.15) Here is a pumper connected to a hydrant by its front-mounted suction hose. The pumper end of the hose has a swivel to facilitate reaching hydrants on either side.
(Fig. 2.16a) Pumper stopping to initiate a forward hose lay from a hydrant.
(Fig. 2.16b) The same pumper completing the straight lay towards the fire scene, and a firefighter preparing to operate the hydrant after the hose is safely layed out.
(Fig. 2.16c) Pumper performing a reverse hose lay from a fire scene (to feed the monitor nozzle shown) towards a hydrant.
Spacing
Maximum distance between hydrants differs greatly, depending on various local standards. IFC and NFPA 1 both include tables within appendices that enable a designer to find the required fire flow for any given building, and then select the corresponding hydrant spacing. Where apparatus may approach from different directions, hydrants should be placed primarily at intersections. If additional hydrants are needed to comply with local spacing requirements, they should be spaced along blocks at regular intervals.
Location
Pumpers may utilize hydrants in different ways. If the fire is close enough, a pumper can be positioned at a hydrant and use a large-diameter suction hose (Figure 2.15). Pumpers in urban and suburban areas with hydrants are generally equipped with large-diameter suction hoses connected to an intake on the pumper's front bumper, rear step, or side. This suction hose may be as short as 15 feet. In many urban areas, however, pumpers carry longer suction hoses in order to reach hydrants on the opposite side of a single line of parallel parked cars.
If a fire is not close to a particular hydrant, a pumper may have to lay one or more hose lines between the hydrant and the fire. If a pumper lays a supply hose line from a hydrant towards the building with the fire emergency, this is called a “straight” or “forward” hose lay (Figures 2.16a and 2.16b). The opposite (laying supply hose from a building on fire to a hydrant farther down the street) is called a “reverse lay” (Figure 2.16c). Many fire departments use one or the other of these options as their standard procedure. Designers should take this into account when locating hydrants. For instance, hydrants at the end of dead-end streets will not facilitate straight hose lays.
Hydrants that are too close to a particular building are less likely to be used due to potential fire exposure or collapse. Locating hydrants at least 40 feet away from protected buildings is recommended. If this is not possible, consider locations with blank walls, no windows or doors, and where structural collapse is unlikely (such as building corners). A rule of thumb for collapse zone size is twice the distance of the building's height. This is not a consideration in urban areas, where a multitude of hydrants are available for any given location.
Marking
A number of methods are used to enable firefighters to rapidly identify hydrant locations. The color used for hydrants should contrast as much as possible with the predominating surroundings. Some localities place reflective tape around the hydrant body. Other jurisdictions mount reflectors (usually blue) in the roadway in front of each hydrant; however, in cold weather climates these reflectors are often obstructed by snow.
The best way to identify hydrants in areas subject to snowy weather is a locator pole which is visible above the highest expected snowfall. These are reflective or contrasting in color, and some have a flag, sign, or reflector mounted on top (Figure 2.17). These poles should be flexible enough to return to their upright position if someone tampers with them, or rigid enough to prevent this type of tampering. Some jurisdictions or sites go so far as mounting a light (usually red or blue) above the hydrants.
A color coding system may indicate flow capability of hydrants. One such system is contained in NFPA 291, Recommended Practice for Fire Flow Testing and Marking of Hydrants.
During construction or demolition, fire hydrants may be out of service. Designers should specify that inoperative hydrants be covered or marked during their projects, so that firefighters will not waste time attempting to use them.
(Fig. 2.17) One example of a hydrant locator pole with a reflective flag.
Considerations - Fire Hydrants
Position: Orient the pumper outlet toward the access lane or street.
Height: Center of lowest outlet should be 18 inches above grade.
Location: Within 5 feet of an access lane or street; preferably with no intervening parking.
Protection: Provide bollards if there is no curb between the road surface and the hydrant; locate at least 3 feet from the hydrant.
Obstructions: Locate 3 feet from any surrounding obstructions.
Consider fire department approach directions and hose-laying procedures when locating hydrants.
Avoid locations likely to be blocked, such as loading docks.
Position hydrants at least 40 feet from buildings they serve.
Specify a hydrant marking system; in cold climates, use distinctive poles.
Where possible, color code hydrants to indicate flow.
Specify that inoperative hydrants be covered or marked.
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FIREFIGHTER ACCESS
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Once firefighters have arrived and positioned their apparatus, they must go to work. Some factors affecting their efficiency include: the distance and terrain between the apparatus access and the building; how easily they can enter the building; the building's interior layout and vertical access (stairs/elevators/roof access); and, how quickly firefighters can locate fire protection features and utilities. The designer can make a positive impact in all of these areas.
Site access
Firefighters must hand carry all equipment beyond the point where apparatus access ends. Increased distance translates into additional time and effort to set up ladders, hose lines, and other equipment. If the area is easy to negotiate by foot, firefighters can move more quickly. The IFC and NFPA 1 contain requirements for access to building openings, such as approved walkways that lead from the apparatus access points to the entry doors.
Fire department pumpers carry hose lines for attacking fires. These are usually smaller in diameter than the hose lines used to supply water to the pumper from a water source. Many pumpers have one or more hose loads of a fixed length connected into a pump discharge. These are “pre-connected” hose lines, often called simply “preconnects.” Firefighters deploy them rapidly for quick fire attack. However, their useful range is limited by their length, which is generally between 100 and 400 feet. Designers planning unusual designs for their buildings or working with unusual sites should coordinate with the local fire department regarding hose line access unless a standpipe system is provided in the building.
Buildings under construction or renovation pose their own particular concerns to the fire service. Code provisions can be found in the IFC Chapter 14, IBC Chapter 33, NFPA 5000 Chapter 14, and NFPA 241. Designers should consider the accessibility of fire department connections, fire hydrants, and entry points. Some locations may be more likely to be obstructed by construction storage, truck unloading, cranes, phasing of the construction, and security fences. Designers should consider specifying these locations and the location of temporary and permanent fire protection equipment to avoid conflicts (Figures 5.14 and 5.15).
Key Boxes and Entry Doors
If firefighters need to conduct interior fire suppression operations, they must enter the building at one or more points. The fire service has an array of tools to force entry into buildings. However, forcing entry takes extra time and usually damages the building.
Key boxes (also called “access boxes” or “lock boxes”) are small lockable vaults mounted outside building entrances (Figure 2.18). They are opened with a master key held by the fire department. Inside the box are the building's keys. Some jurisdictions require key boxes; others give building owners the option of installing them, or risking the need for firefighters to force entry into their buildings along with any resulting damage. Code officials enforcing the IFC and NFPA 1 may require key boxes. When key boxes are optional, designers may want to educate owners on their benefits.
(Fig. 2.18) Key box adjacent to fire command center. Theses boxes are often provided at main building entry doors. Note the fire department connection on the left.
First arriving firefighters will often base their point of entry on which windows have fire or smoke venting from them. In most cases, entrances that serve any particular window will be readily apparent from the outside. If it is not obvious which door to enter to reach which area, signs or diagrams should be provided outside each entrance door indicating portions of the building accessible from the corresponding door (Figure 2.19).
(Fig. 2.19) Apartment locator. This door does not access apartments whose windows flack it.
In multi-tenant buildings, such as shopping centers and malls, tenants usually have rear exit doors that firefighters may access. Often these doors look alike, making it hard to correlate a given door with a particular tenant. Labeling rear doors on the outside with the tenant's name, address number and/or suite number, using lettering at least six inches high with a 1/2 inch stroke (thickness of lines in each letter) prevents this problem (Figure 2.20).
(Fig. 2.20) Rear doors of a shopping center labeled for rapid access: utility room, fire protection equipment room, and individual tenant space.
Any door that appears to be functional from the outside, but is unusable for any reason, should have a sign reading "THIS DOOR BLOCKED. " The lettering should be at least six inches high with a 1/2 inch stroke. If these doors are properly marked, firefighters will not waste time trying to gain entry through them.
Interior Access
Large, unusual, or complex buildings present a challenge to maneuvering and locating specific areas. Directional signs with room/tenant numbers, and graphic directories of tenant/agency layout can assist the public (Figure 2.21). The same diagrams may assist firefighters if they include: stairway and elevator identifiers, fire hose valve locations, fire alarm control panel location, fire alarm annunciator location, fire pump location and other fire protection features. Diagrams should also contain features to assist unfamiliar users with orientation, such as road names or a compass point. Detailed floor plans showing building layout and fire protection systems can assist the fire service. In buildings with fire command centers, a good location for these plans is in this command center. In other buildings, these plans may be locked inside the fire alarm annunciator panel.
(Fig. 2.21) Shopping complex diagram with views of the overall complex as well as the interior tenant diagram of the building in which the diagram is located.
Equipment and Utility Identification
A routine function in any advanced fire suppression operation is to control (usually shut down) utilities. Making it easy to locate and identify utilities will speed firefighters' progress. Electric, gas, and other fuel controls should be located either in dedicated rooms with exterior marked entrances, or at exterior locations away from openings such as windows or doors (Figure 2.20).
NFPA 170, Standard for Symbols for Use by the Fire Service, contains symbols for marking gas and electric shut-offs. Air handling equipment should also be prominently marked, especially if located out of sight. The fire service may need to quickly access rooms containing the following equipment: water service, control valves, fire pumps, electric service, switchgear, generators, fans and other mechanical equipment. Lettering for this signage should be at least six inches high with a 1/2 inch stroke (thickness of lines in each letter), unless the standard symbols are used.
Marking of fire protection system devices within buildings is discussed further in the chapters on fire alarm systems, sprinkler systems, standpipe systems, and fire department connections.
Elevators
The use of elevators during fire incidents is very controversial. Elevators are not usually used for occupant evacuation. One exception is trained operators evacuating occupants with special needs. They should, however, be designed for fire service use. The elevator standard widely referenced in building and fire codes is ANSI A17.1, Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators. It details the two phases of emergency operation.
Phase 1 of elevator emergency operation consists of a recall system that automatically sends elevators to a “designated” primary level. This occurs upon activation of a manual recall switch at the designated level or upon activation of smoke detectors in the elevator lobbies, hoistways, or machine rooms. If a detector is activated on the designated primary level, the elevator cars go to an alternate floor level. In either case, the elevators are rendered unavailable to building occupants. They remain at the recall level with doors open, so the fire service can quickly determine that they are clear of occupants and then use them in a manual control mode.
The designated recall level usually is the ground or entry level. This will facilitate rapid fire department access. For buildings with entrances on multiple levels, designers should consult the fire department about the entrance firefighters intend to use initially. The fire department may also prefer to coordinate the designated recall level with the location of the fire alarm annunciator, fire control room, and/or the fire department connection.
Phase 2 emergency operation permits the fire service to use the elevators under their manual control. Phase 2 operation overrides all automatic controls, including the Phase 1 recall.
Solid-state elevator control equipment operates correctly only if maintained within a certain temperature range. NFPA 101, NFPA 5000, and the IBC require independent ventilation in machine rooms containing solid-state equipment that controls elevators traveling over certain distances. Whenever such elevators receive emergency power, their corresponding machine room ventilation would also receive emergency power. These features help maintain at least one elevator operational throughout fire suppression operations.
Currently, ANSI A17.1 requires an automatic power shutdown feature for elevators that have fire sprinklers located in their machine rooms and, under certain conditions, in hoistways. Shutdown occurs upon or prior to the discharge of water, usually when heat detectors mounted next to each sprinkler head are activated. These heat detectors have both a lower temperature rating and a higher sensitivity (a lower response time index) than the sprinkler. However, to minimize the chance that firefighters will be trapped by a power shutdown, the temperature rating of the heat detector should be as high as feasible. Another shutdown method involves water flow detectors; however, these detectors cannot employ a time delay, so designers seldom choose this method. Note that in many cases NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, permits sprinklers to be omitted from these areas.
The National Fire Alarm Code, NFPA 72, requires that smoke detectors in either the elevator hoistway or the elevator machine rooms trigger separate and distinct visible annunciation at both the fire alarm control unit and the fire alarm annunciator. This alarm notifies firefighters that the elevators are no longer safe to use, and it also provides some warning time prior to the shutdown feature that is required with sprinkler protection. In addition, ANSI A17.1 requires a warning light in elevator cabs to flash when an elevator problem is imminent.
Stairs
NFPA 1, NFPA 101, NFPA 5000, the IBC, and the IFC all require that identification signage be provided inside stairwells at every level (Figure 2.22). These standards all require stairwell signs in buildings over a certain height, but the height thresholds vary. Signage should show the stair identifier, floor level, terminus of the top and bottom, roof accessibility, discharge level, and direction to exit discharge. On floors that require upward travel to reach the exit, a directional indicator should also be provided. It is important that these signs be located 5 feet above the floor and be visible with the stair door open or closed. In hotels or other buildings with room or suite numbers, the signs should also include the room or suite numbers most directly accessed by each stair on every level, (i.e., second floor of stairway 3 has direct access to rooms 202 through 256). The latter signage would be extremely important where certain stairways provide no access to some sections of the building.
(Fig. 2.22) Stairway ID sign.
Buildings more than 3 stories in height above grade should have roof access. The IBC and IFC require this, except for buildings with steeply-pitched roofs (with a more than 4:12 slope).
As stated above, the IFC, the IBC, NFPA 5000, and NFPA 241 contain special construction/demolition requirements. One stairway should be completed as construction advances. Conversely, as demolition progresses, one stairway should be maintained. These standards also address lighting and fire rating of the enclosure.
Stair Capacity
Building and fire codes typically require that stairs accommodate exiting occupants. Fire service personnel who may use the stairs are not factored into exit capacity calculations. In situations where occupants are still exiting and firefighters are using the same stairs to enter the building ("counter-flow"), the evacuation may take longer.
Furthermore, in most cases, stairway capacity is designed based on the floor with the highest occupant load. Typically, stairs are not widened as one travels in the direction of egress unless the stairs converge from both above and below. This approach assumes that people will evacuate in a phased manner, beginning with the floor(s) closest to the fire origin. In an immediate general evacuation, or when people from other areas self-evacuate, the increased load will slow evacuation.
Both of these bottlenecks will be made worse as the height of the building increases. Furthermore, total evacuation is becoming more commonplace due to concerns about terrorism.
An effective solution to the counter-flow issue is a dedicated firefighting stairway. Codes in the United Kingdom contain specifications for such fire-fighting stairs, elevators, and intervening lobbies in buildings of a certain height (Figure 2.23). Current U.S. codes do not require dedicated stairways or elevators. The disadvantages of dedicated firefighting stairways include: cost, space, and the effort needed to keep them clear and in operating order.
A solution to egress delays caused by either counter-flow or total evacuation is to provide additional exit capacity by means of additional stairs or widened stairs. Cost and space are also disadvantages of this solution.
(Fig. 2.23) Dedicated firefighting stairway/elevator tower. © Crown Copyright 2000 Queen's Printer of Acts of Parliament.
These issues currently remain unresolved in the code community; however, a designer may encounter these issues on projects for large, high-security, or high-profile facilities. Further guidance on the movement of people in buildings can be found in the Society of Fire Protection Engineers' publication, Human Behavior in Fire.
Considerations - Firefighter Access
Consider firefighter foot access in site design.
Avoid using areas that are likely to be obstructed (i.e., shipping and receiving areas).
Label blocked doors with exterior signage.
Coordinate temporary construction storage and loading areas with access points and fire protection features.
Provide key boxes when required; recommend their use in other areas.
Locate key boxes as recommended by the particular fire department.
Include fire protection features on the building directories.
Provide signs or diagrams at limited access entrances.
Identify rooms containing utility shutoffs and fire protection equipment.
Coordinate elevator recall level with fire service operating procedures.
Design elevator shutdown feature to minimize the chance of trapping firefighters.
Provide identification signs at each level of every stairway.
Exten stairs up or down with construction or demolition; consider the need for lighting and rated enclosure.
Where total evacuation of a large building is likely, consider additional egress capacity.
Where firefighter counter-flow is expected, consider additional egress capacity or dedicated firefighter stairs.
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HAZARDS TO THE FIRE SERVICE
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During a fire, any building may become inherently
